Role of Informal Public Transport and Bus Rapid Transit System in Meeting Individual’s Mobility Demand in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Abstract

Human activities are spatially distributed over space, at a varying distance of a person’s home. Therefore, individuals must travel either a short-distance or long-distance, by use of different travel modes, to participate in various livelihood activities (i.e. work, health care, shopping, and family matters). Transport plays a significant role in the social and economic development of any society and can be seen as a catalyst for individuals’ interactions with different opportunities dispersed geographically in space and time. The use of different transport systems (e.g. public transport, cars, walking) for out-of-home activity participation may be constrained by several mobility difficulties, like inadequate connectivity or poor road conditions, high travel costs, chronic traffic congestion, or a lack of safety and security of the journeys. In the Global South, public transport (PT) is the main motorized mode of transport for a large share of the population without a reliable source of income or access to a private car. Similar to other developing cities, in Dar es Salaam (DES), Tanzania, PT is facing critical challenges to serve the mobility demands of individuals because the system is not well connected to different destinations (i.e. activity locations), hence not reliable for all users. Low-income individuals are experiencing substantial travel difficulties, exposing them to a high risk of being excluded from job participation (e.g. street vending, petty trading, and other small entrepreneurship) and access to public services located far away from their neighbourhoods. In DES, only a few places (i.e. the major central business districts (CBDs) are considered important for economic growth and are connected by designated PT and engineered road conditions. Urbanization challenges such as rapid growth of the population and uncontrolled urban sprawl displace individuals far away from the major roads and the CBD, where there is limited option to walk safely and to directly access the PT. Besides, only a few individuals, mainly with a reliable source of income, have the option to use private cars to commute long distances to their desired destinations. The use of Informal Public Transport (IPT), i.e. unscheduled means of transport (e.g. minibuses, motorcycles, and tricycles) among low-income individuals, is a common solution for meeting their mobility demands in different spatial destinations. However, the use of IPT has been associated with several challenges, i.e. chronic congestions, long travel time, overcrowding, and lack of safety and security. To overcome the transport challenges, the Tanzanian government has decided to implement a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in order to offer affordable (ability to make the necessary journey to work, school, health or other social services, etc.) and efficient mobility for the urban population, leading to a better quality of life. However, the impact of this BRT system in meeting the mobility demands of individuals is still limited in many African cities, particularly DES. This PhD dissertation focuses on exploring the individuals’ mobility experiences and perceptions, and the use of different transport systems in supporting the mobility demands (activity participation) of individuals, before and after implementation of a BRT corridor in DES. The study integrates Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and a GPS-based smartphone application (GPS-app) to explore individuals’ perceptions and their objective travel behaviour (in terms of trip distances, number of trips, departure times, and travel destinations) in DES, an area with a high level of informality and limited experiences with BRT use. The study design involved two phases of data collection, one phase conducted before, and one phase (2years) after the BRT implementation, to explore possible changes in mobility experiences and travel behaviour over time. The outcomes of this PhD research study are four papers, which are presented in different chapters in this dissertation. Besides these papers, the dissertation includes general introduction (chapter 1), main theoretical framework (chapter 2) and general conclusion and discussion (chapter 7), as outlined below. • Chapter 1 provides a general introduction of the dissertation, specifically the chapter highlights issues related with urban population growth, and uncontrolled urban sprawl, unplanned settlement, and implication in transport challenges in Global South cities. Mobility challenges of the low-income individuals particularly in peri-urban neighbourhoods were reflected. Research objectives and the general organization of the dissertation are presented in this chapter. • Chapter 2 presents the main theoretical framework and empirical background information. Theoretical frameworks discussed are Hägerstrand’s time-space Geography; Social exclusion approach in transportation, and Bottom-up approach. The main concepts, issues related with transport systems and the case study city DES were described and explained. Transport-related concepts include mobility, public transport, informal public transport, and BRT. The chapter also discussed the methodological gap in travel behaviour data collection in the Global South and specific methods applied for this study. • Chapter 3 presents a study about local people's perceptions on the use of IPT and BRT system in supporting activity participation. The study explained that IPT is burdened by several challenges, leading that many developing cities are seeking to replace IPT with formal BRT lines. However, little is known regarding the ability of the IPT and the BRT in supporting out-of-home activity participation of the inhabitants. The study took place prior to the opening of the BRT, and encompasses FGDs, Participatory Geographic Information systems (PGIS) and questionnaires, carried out both in a study zone close to a BRT corridor and in a peri-urban location. The findings show that IPT was flexible in supporting activity participation and in providing access to both high- and low-density unplanned settlements. The BRT was viewed to benefit specific groups of people, especially with permanent offices in and around the city centre. This paper informs policy makers about possible improvements in PT systems to support activity participation of their inhabitants. • Chapter 4 presents a study about measuring individuals travel behaviour by use of a GPS-app before implementation of the BRT system. This study argued that Global South cities have started to invest in BRT, as a complement or replacement for informal paratransit services, in an effort to improve the mobility and accessibility in the city. Yet, few studies have tried to analyse the impact of the BRT in fast growing cities with a high level of informality in spatial development. The study analyses the applicability of a GPS-based smartphone application to capture trip distances, departure times, trip frequency and visited destinations. Socio-demographic data of respondents were recorded in short questionnaires. The results reveal a variation in individuals travel patterns that are limited within their neighbourhood and away from the BRT line, and along major roads providing access to the CBD. The GPS-app provides an opportunity to policy makers to engage deeply with the spatial reality of local communities, as a basis for transport investments and policy improvements as steps towards an integrated PT system. • Chapter 5 presents a study which compares and explores changes in mobility experiences and perceptions of individuals (local inhabitants), after implementation of the BRT. FGD and short questionnaires were used before and after BRT implementation. Results in both periods showed that the demand for IPT use remained dominant, driven by a low fare, connectivity within the neighbourhood and outside the major road, flexibility and the possibility to commute with goods. The use of BRT was mainly attributed by positive in-bus travel time, and a lack of options along the corridor. Surprisingly, BRT users also experienced mobility difficulties, e.g. long waiting time, overcrowding (in-bus and stations), and a lack of safety and security. Peri-urban individuals continued to experience more travel difficulties than individuals in areas adjacent to the BRT. There is a need to integrate PT with supportive improved local roads to serve multiple destinations. • Chapter 6 presents a study which compares individuals travel behaviour before and after (2 years) actual experience with the BRT ride, by making use of a GPSapp to explore changes in spatial mobility demands in terms of trip distances, trip frequency, departure times and (new) visited destinations. Short surveys were additionally used to record socio-demographic characteristics. The results indicated that the use of IPT remained necessary for low-income individuals to commute within their own neighbourhoods and outside the BRT corridor in multiple destinations, because the use of the BRT route is spatially limited. The use of BRT had become a main option for trips conducted to fixed destinations along the corridor and within service hours. The effects of the BRT remain indirect because of the multiple use of travel modes and lack of specific information for each travel mode. The results are important for transportation planners who tend to focus mainly on BRT as the only solution for all mobility demands of individuals. An integrated PT within a framework of a multimode system is important for inclusive mobility. • Chapter 7 provides the general conclusion and discussion of the main findings, general implications and specific policy implications, transferability, limitations, and future areas for research. This chapter concludes that, given the dominant feature of informality in all dimensions of human activities and spatial disconnection, a single solution ‘BRT system’ is not realistic in meeting the mobility demand of the poor in their local setting. An inclusive mobility for all users requires a holistic and an integrated system approach. Thus, professionals should be more critical and realistic in selecting a BRT system. Each city is unique: successful examples are important as inspiration, but its implementation and design needs to reflect the local contexts in both high and low-density mobility demand (e.g. peri-urban). Consideration should be given to explore in detail who benefits from different transport systems to better improve their mobility demand with more travel options and less travel constrains.